The eNotes Blog Fact in Fiction The Top 20 Harry Potter SpellsDeciphered

Fact in Fiction The Top 20 Harry Potter SpellsDeciphered With the release of the last Harry Potter book,  Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, Potterheads everywhere can rejoice in one final installation of this epic tale. We used this as a chance to revisit some of the most iconic words uttered throughout the series- spells, charms, and curses- and find the root of their meaning. 1. Expecto Patronum A charm that creates a Patronus.  Expecto means I await in Latin, and Patronum means patron. We can surmise that Patronus, Latin for guardian, is what is being awaited. Expecto Patronum = I await a guardian. 2. Accio A charm that summons an object.  Accio simply means summon in Latin. Accio = summon. 3. Wingardium Leviosa A charm that makes objects fly.  This one is a sort of pseudo-Latin.  Wing can simply be taken from the English word, and  levis is Latin for lightweight. Together, these words make sense in a charm that makes things fly. 4.  Expelliarmus A charm that disarms ones opponent.  Expello  means to banish and  arma is Latin for weapons. Expelliarmus = to banish weapons. 5.  Lumos A spell that creates light at the tip of the casters wand.  Lumen is simply Latin for light. Lumos = light. 6.  Alohomora A charm that opens locked objects. J.K Rowling claims that  alohomora is a West African word meaning friendly to thieves. It seems to make perfect sense, since what thieves wouldnt want a door unlocked? 7.  Avada Kedavra A curse that murders ones  opponent. Avada Kedavra  seems to actually be the Aramaic form of the infamous phrase abracadabra, meaning let the thing be destroyed. 8.  Sectumsempra A spell that inflicts slash wounds.  Sectus  is Latin for cut up and  semper is Latin for always. Sectumsempra = always cut up. 9.  Obliviate A charm that erases memories. From the Medieval Latin word  obliviscor, which means to forget, obliviate literally means forget. 10.  Riddikulus A spell used to defeat a Boggart. Riddikulus seems to be a made-up spelling of the Latin word  ridiculus, which means the same as  ridiculous in English. This in itself is derived from  rideo, which means to laugh at or to smile. 11.  Imperio A curse that allows the caster to control a person.  Imperio is Latin for command. As a curse giving total control over someone, it checks out. Imperio = command. 12.  Petrificus Totalus A curse that paralyzes ones opponent. The Greek  petros means rock or stone, and the Latin  facio means cause to happen. That coupled with the Medieval Latin  totalis or classical Latin  totus, both meaning whole or entire, leaves petrificus totalus meaning to cause the entire thing to turn to stone.   13.  Stupefy A spell that knocks out ones opponent.  Stupeo means to be stunned in Latin, and  fio is Latin for cause to happen. Stupefy = cause someone to be stunned. 14.  Crucio A curse that inflicts torturous  pain on ones opponent.  Crucio literally means torture in Latin. How easy is that? Crucio = torture. 15.  Incendio A spell that starts a fire.  Incendo is Latin for set fire to. Incendio = set fire to. 16.  Aguamenti A charm that shoots water from the tip of ones wand.  Aqua in Latin- or  agua in Spanish- means water, and  augmen  is Latin for  growth. Aguamenti = growing water. 17.  Expulso A charm that makes blocking objects explode.  Ex translates to away in Latin, and  pulso means I strike. Expulso = I strike things away. 18.  Protego A charm that causes a spell to reflect onto its caster. Another direct translation, the Latin word  protego means to cover or  to protect. In this case, it applies to the charms ability to protect the caster. Protego = protect. 19.  Reducto A spell that explodes solid objects.  Reducto means having been reduced in Latin. Contextually, it seems that this applies to the objects being reduced into their most basic form, i.e. they are exploded into much smaller pieces. 20.  Reparo A spell that repairs broken or damaged objects.  Reparo is Latin for restore or renew. Easy, right? Reparo = restore. Need a refresher about the previous books? Check out the Harry Potter novels summary, or read about each book in order: Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Teachers:  Take a look at our Harry Potter lesson plan and teaching unit!

Nahuatl - The Lingua Franca of the Aztec Empire

Nahuatl - The Lingua Franca of the Aztec Empire Nhuatl (pronounced NAH-wah-tuhl) was the language spoken by the people of the Aztec Empire, known as the Aztec or Mexica. Although the spoken and written form of the language has substantively changed from the prehispanic classical form, Nahuatl has persevered for half a millennium. It is still spoken today by approximately 1.5 million people, or 1.7% of the total population of Mexico, many of whom call their language Mexicano (Me-shee-KAH-no). The word Nahuatl is itself one of several words that mean to one extent or another good sounds, an example of encoded meaning that is central to the Nahuatl language. Mapmaker, priest, and leading Enlightenment intellectual of New Spain Josà © Antonio Alzate [1737–1799] was an important advocate for the language. Although his arguments failed to gain support, Alzate vigorously objected to Linnaeuss use of Greek words for New World botanical classifications, arguing that Nahuatl names were uniquely useful because they encoded a storehouse of knowledge that could be applied to the scientific project. Nhuatls Origins Nhuatl is part of the Uto-Aztecan family, one of the largest of the Native American language families. The Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Nahuan family includes many North American languages such as Comanche, Shoshone, Paiute, Tarahumara, Cora, and Huichol. The Uto-Aztecan main language diffused out of the Great Basin, moving where the Nahuatl language probably originated, in the upper Sonoran region of what is now New Mexico and Arizona and the lower Sonoran area in Mexico. Nahuatl speakers are first believed to have reached the Central Mexican highlands sometime around AD 400/500, but they came in several waves and settled among different groups such as Otomangean and Tarascan speakers. According to historical and archaeological sources, the Mexica were among the last of the Nhuatl speakers to migrate from their homeland in the north. Nhuatl Distribution With the founding of their capital at Tenochtitlan, and the growth of the Aztec/Mexica empire in the 15th and 16th centuries, Nhuatl spread all over Mesoamerica. This language became a lingua franca spoken by merchants, soldiers, and diplomats, over an area including what is today northern Mexico to Costa Rica, as well as parts of Lower Central America. Legal steps which reinforced its  lingua franca  status included the decision by King  Philip II  in 1570 to make Nahuatl the linguistic medium for clerics to use in religious conversion and for the training of ecclesiastics working with the native people in different regions. Members of the nobility from other ethnic groups, including Spaniards, used spoken and written Nahuatl to facilitate communication throughout New Spain. Sources for Classical Nahuatl The most extensive source on Nhuatl language is the book written in the mid-16th century by friar Bernardino de Sahagà ºn called the Historia General de la Nueva Espaà ±a, which is included in the Florentine Codex. For its 12 books, Sahagà ºn and his assistants collected what is essentially an encyclopedia of the language and culture of the Aztec/Mexica. This text contains parts written both in Spanish and Nhuatl transliterated into the Roman alphabet. Another important document is the Codex Mendoza, commissioned by King Charles I of Spain, which combined a history of the Aztec conquests, the amount and types of tributes paid to the Aztecs by geographical province, and an account of Aztec daily life, beginning in 1541. This document was written by skilled native scribes and overseen by the Spanish clerics, who added glosses in both Nahuatl and Spanish. Saving the Endangered Nahuatl Language After the Mexican War of Independence in 1821, the use of Nahuatl as an official medium for documentation and communication disappeared. Intellectual elites in Mexico engaged in a creation of new national identity, seeing the indigenous past as an obstacle to the modernization and progress of Mexican society. Over time, Nahua communities became more and more isolated from the rest of Mexican society, suffering what researchers Okol and Sullivan refer to as a political dislocation arising from the lack of prestige and power, and a closely-related cultural dislocation, resulting from modernization and globalization. Olko and Sullivan (2014) report that although prolonged contact with Spanish has resulted in changes in word morphology and syntax, in many places there persist close continuities between the past and present forms of Nahuatl. The Instituto de Docencia e Investigacià ³n Etnolà ³gica de Zacatecas (IDIEZ) is one group working together with Nahua speakers to continue practicing and developing their language and culture, training the Nahua speakers to teach Nahuatl to others and to actively collaborate with international academics in research projects. A similar project is underway (described by Sandoval Arenas 2017) at the Intercultural University of Veracruz. Nhuatl Legacy There is today a wide variation in the language, both linguistically and culturally, that can be attributed in part to the successive waves of Nahuatl speakers who arrived in the valley of Mexico so long ago. There are three major dialects of the group known as Nahua: the group in power in the Valley of Mexico at the time of contact was that Aztecs, who called their language Nahuatl. To the west of the Valley of Mexico, the speakers called their language Nahual; and dispersed around those two clusters was a third who called their language Nahuat. This last group included the Pipil ethnic group who eventually migrated to El Salvador. Many contemporary place names in Mexico and Central America are the result of a Spanish transliteration of their Nhuatl name, such as Mexico and Guatemala. And many Nahuatl words have passed into the English dictionary through Spanish, such as coyote, chocolate, tomato, chili, cacao, avocado and many others. What does Nahuatl Sound Like? Linguists can define the original sounds of classical Nahuatl in part because the Aztec/Mexica used a glyphic writing system based on Nahuatl that contained some phonetic elements, and the Spanish ecclesiastics matched the Roman phonetic alphabet to the good sounds they heard from the locals. The earliest extant Nahuatl-Roman alphabets are from the Cuernavaca region and date to the late 1530s or early 1540s; they were probably written by various indigenous individuals and compiled by a Franciscan friar. In her 2014 book Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory, archaeologist and linguist Frances Berdan provides a pronunciation guide to classical Nahuatl, only a small taste of which is listed here. Berdan reports that in classical Nahuatl the main stress or emphasis in a given word is almost always on the next-to-last syllable. There are four main vowels in the language: a as in the English word palm, e as in bet, i as in see, and o as in so. Most consonants in Nahuatl are the same as those used in English or Spanish, but the tl sound is not quite tuhl, it more of a glottal t with a little puff of breath for the l. See Berdan for more information. There is an Android-based application called ALEN (Audio-Lexicon Spanish-Nahuatl) in a beta form that has both written and oral modalities, and uses homemade illustrations, and word search facilities. According to Garcà ­a-Mencà ­a and colleagues (2016), the app beta has 132 words; but the commercial Nahuatl iTunes App written by Rafael Echeverria currently has more than 10,000 words and phrases in Nahuatl and Spanish. Sources Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Berdan FF. 2014. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press.Dakin K. 2001. Nahuatl. In: Carrasco D editor. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 363-365.Garcà ­a-Mencà ­a R, Là ³pez-Là ³pez A, and Muà ±oz Melà ©ndez A. 2016. An Audio-Lexicon Spanish-Nahuatl: Using technology to promote and disseminate a native Mexican language. In: Bradley L, and Thouà «sny S, editors. CALL communities and culture – short papers from EUROCALL 2016: Research-publishing.net. p 155-159.Maxwell JM. 2001. Languages at the Time of Contact. In: Evans ST, and Webster DL, editors. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing Inc. p 395-396.Mundy BE. 2014. Place-Names in Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Ethnohistory 61(2):329-355.Olko J, and Sullivan J. 2014. Toward a comprehensive model for Nahuatl language research and revitalization. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Berk eley Linguistics Society 40:369-397. Sandoval Arenas CO. 2017. Displacement and revitalization of the Nahuatl language in the High Mountains of Veracruz, Mexico. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 16(1):66-81.Various authors. 2011. Los Nahua. Cultura Viva, Arqueologà ­a Mexicana 19(109, May-June)